Discuss the major differences between ‘content’ and ‘process’ work theories. Explain Abraham Maslow’s theory of Need-Hierarchy.

Content and Process Theories
The content theories are concerned with identifying the needs that people have and how needs are prioritized. They are concerned with types of incentives that drive people to attain need fulfillment. The Maslow hierarchy theory, Fredrick Herberg’s two factor theory and Alderfer’s ERG needs theory fall in this category. Although such a content approach has logic, is easy to understand, and can be readily translated in practice, the research evidence points outs our limitations. There is very little research support for these models’ theoretical basis and predictability. The trade off for simplicity sacrifices true understanding of the complexity of work motivation. On the positive side, however, the content models have given emphasis to important content factors that were largely ignored by human relationists. In addition the Alderfer model allows more flexibility and the Herzberg model is useful as an explanation for job satisfaction and as a point of departure for job design.

The process theories provide a much sounder theoretical explanation of work motivations. The expectancy model of Vroom and the extensions and the refinements provided by Porter and Lawler help explain the important cognitive variables and how they relate to one another in the process of work motivation. The Porter Lawler model also gives specific attention to the important relationship between performance and satisfaction. A growing research literature is somewhat supportive of these expectancy models, but conceptual and methodological problems remain. Unlike the content models these expectancy models are relatively complex and difficult to translate into actual practice, and, consequently, they have generally failed to meet the goals of prediction and control of organization behavior.
   
The process theories are concerned with identifying the variables that go into motivation and more importantly how they are related to one another.

Abraham Maslow theory of need hierarchy:
It was Abraham Maslow who thought that human needs that spark off an activity can be arranged in a hierarchy of pre-potency and probability of occurrence. Maslow based his theory that a need that is not satisfied dominates the behavior sparking off an activity for its satisfaction. This need, when satisfied in its turn activates the higher need. This sequence can be denoted as under:

Deprivation -> Domination -> Gratification -> Activation

Physiological needs
For the most part, physiological needs are obvious - they are the literal requirements for human survival. If these requirements are not met, the human body simply cannot continue to function.

Physiological needs include:
    * Breathing
    * Homeostasis
    * Water
    * Sleep
    * Food
    * Excretion
    * Sex

Safety needs
With their physical needs relatively satisfied, the individual's safety needs take over and dominate their behavior. These needs have to do with people's yearning for a predictable, orderly world in which injustice and inconsistency are under control, the familiar frequent and the unfamiliar rare. In the world of work, this safety needs manifest themselves in such things as a preference for job security, grievance procedures for protecting the individual from unilateral authority, savings accounts, insurance policies, and the like.
Physiological and safety needs are reasonably well satisfied in the "First World". The obvious exceptions, of course, are people outside the mainstream — the poor and the disadvantaged. If frustration has not led to apathy and weakness, such people still struggle to satisfy the basic physiological and safety needs. They are primarily concerned with survival: obtaining adequate food, clothing, shelter, and seeking justice from the dominant societal groups.

Safety and Security needs include:
    * Personal security
    * Financial security
    * Health and well-being
    * Safety net against accidents/illness and the adverse impacts

Social needs
After physiological and safety needs are fulfilled, the third layer of human needs is social. This psychological aspect of Maslow's hierarchy involves emotionally-based relationships in general, such as:
    * Friendship
    * Intimacy
    * Having a supportive and communicative family

Humans need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance, whether it comes from a large social group, such as clubs, office culture, religious groups, professional organizations, sports teams, gangs, or small social connections (family members, intimate partners, mentors, close colleagues, confidants). They need to love and be loved (sexually and non-sexually) by others. In the absence of these elements, many people become susceptible to loneliness, social anxiety, and clinical depression. This need for belonging can often overcome the physiological and security needs, depending on the strength of the peer pressure; an anorexic, for example, ignores the need to eat and the security of health for a feeling of control and belonging.
  
All humans have a need to be respected, to have self-esteem, self-respect, and to respect. Also known as the belonging need, esteem presents the normal human desire to be accepted and valued by others. People need to engage themselves to gain recognition and have an activity or activities that give the person a sense of contribution, to feel accepted and self-valued, be it in a profession or hobby. Imbalances at this level can result in low self-esteem or an inferiority complex. People with low self-esteem need respect from others. They may seek fame or glory, which again depends on others. It may be noted, however, that many people with low self-esteem will not be able to improve their view of themselves simply by receiving fame, respect, and glory externally, but must first accept themselves internally. Psychological imbalances such as depression can also prevent one from obtaining self-esteem on both levels.

Self-transcendence
Near the end of his life Maslow revealed that there was a level on the hierarchy that was above self-actualization: self-transcendence. "Transcenders may be said to be much more often aware of the realm of Being (B-realm and B-cognition), to be living at the level of Being… to have unitive consciousness and “plateau experience” (serene and contemplative B-cognitions rather than climactic ones) … and to have or to have had peak experience (mystic, sacral, ecstatic) with illuminations or insights.

The motivation to realize one's own maximum potential and possibilities is considered to be the master motive or the only real motive, all other motives being its various forms. In Maslow's hierarchy of needs, the need for self-actualization is the final need that manifests when lower level needs have been satisfied.

Defense mechanism serve as an important function of keeping the human personality integrated, bring out these dense mechanism including the psychological process with illustrations.

           

Defense Mechanism	Psychological process	Illustration
Rationalization	Justifying inconsistent or undesirable behavior, beliefs etc. by providing acceptable explanation for them.	Padding the expense account “because everybody does it”
Regression	Individual returns to an earlier a less mature level of adjustment in the face of frustration.	A manager shouting at his subordinate.
Aggression i.e. emotional transference	Re-directing pent-up emotions towards persons or the objects unconnected with the source of frustration.	Roughly rejecting a request from a subordinate after receiving a rebuff from the boss.
Fantasy	Daydreaming or other forms of imaginative activity provide an escape from the reality and imagined satisfaction.	Employee daydreams of the day in the staff meeting when he corrects the boss and is publicly acknowledged as the real brain of the company.
Negativism	Active or passive resistance operating unconsciously.	A manager saying that the recommendations of a committee are not implemental because he could not become a member of the committee.
Resignation, flight or withdrawal	Leaving the field where anxiety or conflict is experienced.	A student who could not pass an examination quitting the course.

Describe the theory of unconscious behavior as shaped by Sigmund Freud. Give out the characteristics of needs or motives which are directed to satisfy by Human Behavior.

Sigmund Freud shaped the theory of ‘unconscious behavior’ and reasoned that human behavior is like an iceberg; only a small part of which is visible. However, the part of iceberg which is not seen controls the seen part. So is the case of human behavior. To Freud, human is constantly in conflict with the self. The three constructs of human personality are always conflicting. The final outcome, which is the observable behavior, is the product of this conflict. According to him, this is the reason why many a times a human cannot verbalize his motivations.

Modern psychologists believe that the human behavior is sparked by a motive. A motive is a felt need. Human behavior is directed to satisfy these needs or motives. They have five characteristics. They are:
1.    The need having the highest strength dominates the human behavior.
2.    A need once satisfied ceases to influence behavior.
3.    When a need is satisfied, it gives rise to a new need.
4.    Needs are recurrent in nature.
5.    Needs are ubiquitous.

Some psychologists tend to classify motives according to whether they are learned or unlearned and whether they are psychologically or physiologically based. The following is the classification:
•    Primary Motives are the ones that are unlearned and are physiologically based. Defined this way the most commonly recognized primary motives include hunger, thrust, sleep, avoidance of pain, sex, etc.
•    General Motives are the ones that are unlearned but not physiologically based. The primary needs seek to reduce the tension or stimulation. Although not all the psychologists believe that motives such as curiosity, manipulative activity, and affection etc. fall in this category.
•    Secondary Motives develop as a human society develops economically and becomes more complex. The examples of secondary motives are needs for power, need for affiliation, need for achievement, need for security and need for status etc.

The Power Motive – n pow
The leading advocate of this motive was pioneering psychologist Alfred Adler. Power motive essentially is the desire to control others; to direct others’ behavior. The power attaches to one’s personal competence. In an organization because of this competence a person comes to acquire power. His say influences the decisions of his superiors. In other words he comes to acquire extra constitutional powers. Person who has acquired such power must use it for the good of the organization. It is necessary that he recognizes that the power he has is because of the organization.

The Achievement Motive – n ach
David C. McClelland is most closely associated with the study of achievement motive. Achievement motivation can be expressed as a desire to performing in terms of a standard of excellence or to be successful in competitive situations. The characteristics of high achiever are a) moderate risk taking, b) need for immediate feedback, c) satisfaction with accomplishment and d) preoccupation with the task.
  

Affiliation Motive – n aff
This motive is indicative of the need belong to and be accepted by the others. The consideration of this motive is important in the discussions of group dynamics. The higher the need for affiliation among the members of the group; the higher is the group cohesiveness.
 

Motives are ubiquitous and if that is so the questions arises as to how a human satisfies his motive. The concept of coping behavior says the human changes his behavior until he gets what he wants. The behavior continues on the way leading to need satisfaction.
 

Many a times situations arise in such a way that human being does not understand as to what he should do; or many times his self image is likely to be criticized by the world; or the need fulfillment gets continually blocked. When this occurs, a phenomenon known as ‘intra personal’ conflict arises. Intra personal conflicts are three and they are a) Role Conflict, b) Goal Conflict and c) Frustration.
 

Role conflict arises when a person is performing two different roles having contrary or contradictory expectations at the same time. A worker who is also a worker-director is sandwiched between different expectations. On the one hand he is a worker and on the other he is a director in the board of directors. As a director he may have to concur with the decision which may not be, from his point of view, in the interests of workers as such. If he performs his role as a worker he fails in his role as a director. Conversely if he performs his role as a worker he fails in his role as a director.

Goal Conflicts are of three types and they are:
Approach-Approach conflict arises when there exists two equally positive but manually exclusive situations. Both are equally attractive but a person can chose only one of the. A person receiving two equally good job offers gets into this kind of conflict. This kind of conflict is not known to create stress and tension for a long time.
 

Avoidance-Approach conflict arises where exists two equally negative situations one which has to be accepted. For a prisoner continuing in the jail is negative but at the same time if he breaks the jail and escapes, there is a likelihood of him getting caught again and serve a higher punishment. He detests both but has to choose one of them. This conflict is also not known to cause stress for a long time.

Approach-Avoidance conflict is known to create stress in the mind of the person for a long time. This type of conflict arises when a positive situation is coupled with a negative one. If a person wants positive, he must choose negative too. A person wanting a promotion but not a transfer in its wake faces such kind of conflict.

Frustration occurs when need fulfillment is continually blocked or when one’s self image is in jeopardy. Defense mechanisms are the behaviors occurring to deal with frustration.

Enumerate the basic fundamental concepts of Organizational Behavior. Also give out various 4 models with facets one can read in this subject study.

The discipline of Organization Behavior has fundamental concepts revolving round the nature of people and the nature of the organization. They are:

1.    Individual Differences
In spite of all the human being similar every one is different. Every one has a different gift of the nature; different quality of intelligence, different perception and the different ways of behavior. The concept tells that every person is an entity in him. When it comes to human behavior there cannot be a prescriptive solution. Every individual is to be treated differently even though two persons may have the same behavioral problems. The concept also tells the manager that he had better be aware of his own stereotypes. A stereotype is a tendency to attribute the traits of a group to an individual because he belongs to the said group. The Jew genocide can be attributed to this stereotyping. Unfortunately one is not aware as to how these stereotypes influence his behavior. This concept, therefore, not only tells that a manager should treat every person as an entity in himself but he should also examine his own stereotypes.

2.    Perception
People’s perceptions also differ when they see an object. Two people can differently present the same object. And this is occurring for their experiences. A person always organizes and interprets what he sees according to his lifetime of experience and accumulated value.
Employees also see work differently for they differ in their personalities, needs, demographics factors, past experiences and social surrounding.

3.    Whole Person
In the olden days employees were referred to as ‘hands’, implying that the organization hires only the hands of a man. Nothing can be farther from the truth that an organization hires not only the hands of an employee but the complete person with all his pluses and minuses. Since a person performs many roles at the same time, the happenings in one role are bound to affect the behavior in other roles of the person. The concept tells the manager that when it comes to behavioral problems, he must also take into account the other roles of the person. If the whole person is to be developed then only the benefits will extend beyond the organization to the entire society in which the employee lives.

4.    Motivation i.e. caused behavior
The concept reminds the manager of the law enunciated by Newton that every action has an equal and opposite reaction. This means the manager, by his own behavior, can cause an employee behave in a particular way. If he is respectful to his employees they are bound to be respectful to him not otherwise.
An employee has so many needs inside him. So, they want to fulfill those needs. That’s why; they had to perform well in the organization. Some motivations are needed to enrich the quality of work. A path toward increased need fulfillment is the better way of enriching the quality of work.

5.    Desire for involvement
Every employee is actively seeking opportunities at work to involve in decision-making problems. They hunger for the chance to share what they know and to learn from the experience. So, organization should provide them a chance to express their opinions, ideas and suggestion for decision-making problem. A meaningful involvement can bring mutual benefit for both parties.

6.    Human Dignity
This concept is of a different order because it is more an ethical philosophy than a scientific conclusion. It confirms that people are to be treated differently from other factors of production (land, capital, labor). They refuse to accept the old idea that they are simply treated as economic tools. Since they are of a higher order, they want to be treated with respect and dignity from their employers and society.

The four different models of Organizational Behavior show the evolution of the thinking and behavior on the part of management and managers alike. These models also denote the responses of the employees to the various orientations of the managers and the general behavioral climate prevailing in the manager-employee relationship.
These models are:
1.    Autocratic
The autocratic model depends on power. Those who are in command must have the power to demand “you do this-or else,” meaning that an employee who does not follow orders will be penalized.
In an autocratic environment the managerial orientation is formal, official authority. This authority is delegated by right of command over the people to it applies.
Under autocratic environment the employee is obedience to a boss, not respect for a manager.
The psychological result for employees is dependence on their boss, whose power to hire, fire, and perspire them is almost absolute.
The boss pays minimum wages because minimum performance is given by employees. They are willing to give minimum performance-though sometimes reluctantly-because they must satisfy subsistence needs for themselves and their families. Some employees give higher performance because of internal achievement drives, because they personally like their boss, because the boss is “a natural-born leader,” or because of some other factor; but most of them give only minimum performance.

2.    Custodial
A successful custodial approach depends on economic resources.
The resulting managerial orientation is towards money to pay wages and benefits.
Since employees’ physical needs are already reasonably met, the employer looks to security needs as a motivating force. If an organization does not have the wealth to provide pensions and pay other benefits, it cannot follow a custodial approach.
The custodial approach leads to employee dependence on the organization. Rather than being dependent on their boss for their weekly bread, employees now depend on organizations for their security and welfare.
Employees working in a custodial environment become psychologically preoccupied with their economic rewards and benefits.
As a result of their treatment, they are well maintained and contended. However, contentment does not necessarily produce strong motivation; it may produce only passive cooperation. The result tends to be those employees who do not perform much more effectively than under the old autocratic approach.

3.    Supportive
The supportive model depends on leadership instead of power or money. Through leadership, management provides a climate to help employees grow and accomplish in the interests of the organization the things of which they are capable.
The leader assumes that workers are not by nature passive and resistant to organizational needs, but that they are made so by an inadequately supportive climate at work. They will take responsibility, develop a drive to contribute, and improve them if management will give them a chance. Management orientation, therefore, is to support the employee’s job performance rather than to simply support employee benefit payments as in the custodial approach.
Since management supports employees in their work, the psychological result is a feeling of participation and task involvement in the organization. Employee may say “we” instead of “they” when referring to their organization.
Employees are more strongly motivated than by earlier models because their status and recognition needs are better met. Thus they have awakened drives for work.

4.    Collegial
A useful extension of the supportive model is the collegial model. The term “collegial” relates to a body of people working together cooperatively.
The collegial model depends on management’s building a feeling of partnership with employees. The result is that employees feel needed and useful. They feel that managers are contributing also, so it is easy to accept and respect their roles in their organization. Managers are seen as joint contributors rather than as bosses.
The managerial orientation is toward teamwork. Management is the coach that builds a better team
The employee’s response to this situation is responsibility. For example employees produce quality work not because management tells them to do so or because the inspector will catch them if they do not, but because they feel inside themselves an obligation to provide others with high quality. They also feel an obligation to uphold quality standards that will bring credit to their jobs and company.
The psychological result of the collegial approach for the employee is self-discipline. Feeling responsible, employees discipline themselves for performance on the team in the same way that the members of a football team discipline themselves to the training standards and the rules of the game.
In this kind of environment employees normally feel some degree of fulfillment, worthwhile contribution, and self-actualization, even though the amount may be modest in some situation. This self-actualization will lead to moderate enthusiasm in performance

	Autocratic	Custodial	Supportive	Collegial
Model depends on	Power	Economic resources	Leadership	Partnership
Managerial Orientation	Authority	Money	Support	Teamwork
Employee Orientation	Obedience	Security	Job performance	Responsibility
Employee Psychological result	Dependence on boss	Dependence on organization	Participation	Self-discipline
Employee needs met	Subsistence	Maintenance	Higher-order	Self-actualization
Performance result	Minimum	Passive cooperation	Awakened drives	Moderate enthusiasm